The
Development Planning Unit
Government of the British Virgin Islands

The Status of Women
In the British Virgin Islands

6. ACCESS TO EDUCATION, HEALTH, EMPLOYMENT, AND OTHER MEANS TO MAXIMIZE AWARENESS OF WOMEN'S RIGHTS AND THE USE OF THEIR CAPACITIES

"Happily as our population increases, the role and status of women has changed and improved, especially in the areas of employment, education, health and other social standings". (B.V.1. National Report for the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), 1994:21)

In this section of the document an examination of the implications of that statement will be made. The dearth of gender-sensitive statistical research has made this analysis more difficult, but some valuable insights have been obtained from the plethora of reports which have been made available to the researchers.

In their assessment of the current status of population policy, the presenters of the ICPD report (1994) make this comment:

Immigration and labour issues, being the more transparent and volatile ones received more attention than fertility, mortality, health and education issues, which were admittedly of lower profile. (p.23).

We now go on to examine these areas to determine what the present day reality is for women of the B.V.1.

EDUCATION

A review of the education system in the BVI was conducted in 1988. Unfortunately, there was no gender sensitivity in the objectives of the review, so consequently the information which was obtained was related to the general status of education, and the decisions which were taken were also general in nature.

Perhaps this decision not to assess the education system to determine the differential effects on males and females was the product of a feeling that there was equality with regards to the treatment of the sexes and the achievement of the sexes in the education system.

Rita Frett-Georges in a review of the mental health status of women pointed out that "there is no general perception of women being disadvantaged or seriously discriminated against" (1986, p. 7). One must assume that that general perception probably held true for education as well In 1988, because the recommendations of the review were advising action on concerns related to teacher training, curriculum development, technical co-operation and technical and vocational training.

Table 6:1 indicates that in 1980 and 1991 women formed 48.9 per cent of the population respectively.

Population - Table 6:1

Source: ICPD Report 1994

The above figures indicate that men outnumbered women by an average of 3.4 per cent over the twenty year span. Table 6:2, which demonstrates enrolment by gender, mirrors the overall population ratio in primary school enrolment for 1981 but females are slightly underrepresented in 1988 (46% to 54%). However, the statistics for' secondary education point to an interesting contrast, as females in 1981 outnumbered males in proportion to their ratio in the population by fourteen per cent. Statistics from 1992 demonstrate that females outnumber males in enrolment at secondary and tertiary levels. At secondary level the difference is 6 per cent and at tertiary level it is,10 percent.

TABLE 6:2
ENROLLMENT BY GENDER AND LEVEL

Sources: 1980-81 Population Census; ICPD Report 1994;
Country Paper on Financing Education 1993

Table 6:3 addresses graduation by gender and level.

TABLE 6:3
GRADUATION BY GENDER AND LEVEL

Source: 1980-81 Population Census, BVI

Although females are underrepresented by 2.9, as they graduate from primary school, based on their ratio in the population in 1980, graduation figures from secondary school in 1981 show that they exceed the male secondary school graduates proportionately. However, males again surpass them in university and technical school graduations in 1981. Table 6:4 shows that although we see males gaining more degrees we find that women are gaining more diplomas.

TABLE 6:4
QUALIFICATIONS BY GENDER

Source : 1980-1981 Population Census, B.V.1.

Figures from the Ministry of Education and Culture indicate that women were awarded 63.9% of all scholarships from 1989 to 1992.(O'Neal, 1994). However, most of these scholarships were for studies in business, education, and medical care. During that period ten scholarships were awarded for engineering studies but none of these went to women.

TABLE 6:5
SCHOLARSHIPS BY AREA OF STUDY AND SEX, 1989~-1992

Source: BVI Country Paper for UWI Seminar on Financing Education, 1993

This discrimination in scholarships, combined with the fact that census figures still find women in clerical and other non-management fields, indicates that even today, although women are gaining more scholarships, they continue to he predominantly in the areas in which women have traditionally served. Census figures would probably still find men getting more degrees today while women graduate at a lower level with diplomas. In fact even in the field of education, we note that in the BVI most teachers are women and even though women are the principals of primary schools, "top administrative posts in the secondary and tertiary are, for the most part, held by men. Out of the three public secondary institutions in the territory one is headed by a woman, while the dean, president and vice-president of the community college are men." (Women's Desk, 1994). The socialization messages which are being transmitted to children by this clear gender differentiation in job allocation undoubtedly predisposes them to perpetuate the pattern.

TABLE 6:6A
TEACHER/PUPIL RATIO FOR ALL SCHOOL LEVELS

Source: BVI Country Paper for UWI Seminar on Financing Education, 1993

TABLE 6:6B
TEACHER/PUPIL RATIO BY GENDER AND LEVEL

Source: National Report for ICPD 1994

Table 6.6A shows the teacher pupil ratio for all school levels during 4 years, while Table 6:6B shows the gender analysis of that ratio. Women are clearly the ones who were responsible for education at primary and secondary levels in 1988, and it would not be presumptuous to conclude that they are also over represented at preschool and pre-primary.

Although there is little statistical information available for comparisons to be made between the status of women in the 1980's and the present, the foregoing evaluation indicates that the obvious gains which have been made by some women are not a reflection of the reality for most women. While opportunities for tertiary education are now being presented more frequently to women who, statistics indicate, are more academically qualified than their male counterparts are to receive them, the choices made by women continue to relegate them to positions subordinate to men.

HEALTH

A lot of attention has been focused on health in the B.V.1. and many documents, some of them annual reports and others more broadbased, have addressed this issue. The territories' unique population profile consists of 49.9% persons of foreign birth which accounted for 8,032 of its 16,108 inhabitants in 1991. This statistic has led to concerns about the potential conflicts between population, environment and development. Government's response to this situation has led to the implementation of immigration laws and policies to reduce the number of children born to foreign nationals during their stay in the B.V.1. (National Report, ICPD,1994). That publication further affirmed the measures government put into place. In addition to the local Immigration Act, the British Nationality Act was also a means of population control. There were also health related measures:

... institutionalizing family planning and promoting reduced fertility were at the centre of the strategy to avoid economic driven immigration creating severe and unmeetable demands for social services in health, education and welfare. (National Report, ICPD,1994:22)

This avowed preoccupation with immigration and population control in the BVI has allegedly led to some discrimination and some abuse of women without belonger status. Abortions were said to he on the increase among these women who would be forced to leave the island if they were known to be pregnant. The "policy is controversial and negatively affects the health, stability and psychological well-being of persons involved." (Frett-Georges, 1986). The effects of this discrimination will he further discussed in reference to violence against women.

A recent publication published in this year 1994 by the BVI Ministry of Health "A HEALTHIER FUTURE FOR BVI" demonstrates the government's commitment to providing good health services. This document details a three-year programme of health reform. The report does not specifically address-the needs of women as it is written in more general terms and perhaps is reflective of what is cited in the National Report for the ICPD as the overall development strategy of the BVI government "...to enable the people to live longer, healthier and more productive lives."(p.30) let us then take a look at the statistical data as it pertains to this strategy.

Table 6:7 demonstrates that life expectancy for women has continued to be longer than that for men over the past decade. This is in keeping with universal statistics which typically have women living longer.

TABLE 6:7
LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH BY GENDER

Source: National Report for ICPD 1994

Maternal mortality has been reported to be 0.0. Only one death was reported in 1987 due to toxemia and inadequate antenatal care, and none have been reported since. (Harney, 1992, and Public Health Annual Report, 1987).

TABLE 6:8
CRUDE DEATH RATE

Source: National Report, ICPD 1994

TABLE 6:9
INFANT MORTALITY

Source: National Report for ICPD 1994

The infant mortality have been attributed to neonatal deaths and still birth rates. The leading causes of death have been noted as premiered and respiratory disease syndrome (Harney et al, 1992). No explanation has been given for the fact that in 1992, while there was O.O mortality for females infants, the rate for males was 26.3. The lowered rate for females has led to a significant decrease in the infant mortality statistic. The National Report for the ICPD has attributed this improvement to the free services provided by Maternal and Child Services for both nationals and immigrants in the 1980's.

Teenage pregnancy which was said to be 6.6% in 1990 has been noted as one of the non-medical factors which contribute to infant mortality (Harney et a], 1992). It is Interesting to note that teenage pregnancies Gave decreased from 17.5% in 1979, to 15.3% In 1985 and 6.6% in 1990 according to the Hospital Records cited by Harney. Trained attendants in the persons of doctors and midwives attended to 98% of the live births in 1987. These statistics are incomplete, however, as they exclude the children who have been born in the United States Virgin Islands to mothers normally resident in the BVI. These figures are unfortunately unavailable.

All reports of immunization records in the BVI have been positive, as the figure below demonstrate.

TABLE 6:10
IMMUNIZATION RATE 1990 (%), 1987 (#)

Sources: Harney et al 1992. Public Health Department, Annual Report 1987

Child health care covers a well-developed and efficiently functioning programme of immunization, monitoring. (National Report for ICPD,.growth and nutrition monitoring. and 1994:2~9).

The above statement is substantiated by the UNICEF report prepared by Harney et al which states that "there have been no cases of poliomyelitis for 30 years, no cases of diphtheria, of tetanus in children or whooping cough for many years; no death or cases from measles since 1987."

Women in their reproductive years of 15 to 49 years formed 26.5 per cent of the population in 1980 and 28.8 per cent in 1991 (National Report for ICPD,1994). The total fertility rate for women was 3.1 in 1980 and 2.0 in 1991. (Table 6:1 1)

TABLE 6:11
TOTAL FERTILITY RATE FOR WOMEN

Source: National Report for ICPD 1994

In 1980 teenage births accounted for 12.7 percent of all births, in 1985 for 15.3 percent and in 1990 for 6.6 percent. Although these figures have decreased, perhaps due to the intensive family planning campaign, individuals have expressed a need for a comprehensive adolescent health programme which would emphasize health education and values and would seek to build self-esteem through an emphasis on indigenous culture. Please note again the unavailability of statistics for births in the USVI.

Concern has been expressed about the high number of spontaneous abortions, as 33% of women of childbearing age appear to be having difficulty.

The leading causes of death in 1987 were heart disease and respiratory disease (Public Health, Annual Report, 1987) and this remained unchanged in 1992. (Harney et al, 1992). Obesity has been a serious health concern. In 1984, 40% of all women appeared to be affected as compared to 20% of all men. A related problem of high blood pressure has also been affecting women almost four times as much as it has been affecting men (14 percent women, 4 percent men). Women have also been identified as, the main victims of diabetes. Up to the end of March 1994, 30 cases of HIV/AIDS had been reported to the Public Health Department, 12 of which were women.

Low income women, especially domestic workers who are usually non-belongers are more often affected by health problems and stress-related disorders.

The most frequent cause of hospitalization in 1984 and 1989 (apart from normal deliveries') was mental disorders. In 1984 these totalled 53, of which 21 were female and 32 male (Frett-Georges, 1986) while in 1987 they totalled 77, of which 23 were female and 54 male. ( Harney et_al, 1992). With regards to the actual numbers of people diagnosed as psychotic, females, have surpassed males as Table 6:12 illustrates.

WOMEN AND AIDS

Three new cases of women diagnosed with HIV have been reported to the BVI National AIDS and Sexual Health Programme since the start of the year. No new male case has been reported to the Programme so far during 1994.

The AIDS and Sexual Health Programme is now aware of 30 persons in the territory known to be HIV 55 positive since 1987 when the first AIDS case was reported.

One of the three women with HIV developed AIDS, accounting for the only reported case of AIDS up to March 1994. The woman died during this year.

The reported HIV cases this year will have a significant impact on the male and female ratio of zero to one. So far in 1994 that pattern is continuing.

In a recent edition of the Health Education unit's quarterly news letter: Fit-For-life, a Medical Specialist, Dr. Everlyn Fisher said, it-is 10 to 29 times more likely that the women will get infected during unprotected, heterosexual intercourse in a situation where the male and female partner appears to be healthy. According to her, women are far more vulnerable to HIV than men and therefore protecting them yields more in terms of transmission reduction efforts.

The male and female ratio of zero to one introduced in fact the BVI during 1993 appears to be continuing this year. This situation highlights that women have to assume the responsibilities for their own protection from HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases.

For the period 1987 to May, 1994, 16 males and 12 females have been reported with HIV. Ten such ,persons developed AIDS - six males and four females. Since 1987, just one case if child under five years old has been reported to the programme.

Twenty-three persons reported with HIV in the territory are alive, women account for 11 of them.

 TABLE 6:12
MENTAL HEALTH

Source: Rita Frett-Georges, 1986; Peebles Hospital, 1992

Domestic violence and sexual abuse including rape serious implications for health problems for women. In the BVI, 40 female admissions for injuries were made to hospital in 1991. It is unsure how many of these were related to violence against women. This area is so important that it will be dealt with in a subsequent section.

EMPLOYMENT

In 1986, Rita Frett-Georges in her paper on the Mental Health Status of Women in the BVI found that her data supported Burkes' 1983 statement on the profile of Caribbean women of the middle years.

More than one third of all households in the Caribbean are headed by women. Women generally constitute about 40% of the labour force. In some countries whore literacy rates are high they comprise over 50% of the educators, and civil servants. About 50% of the Caribbean rural population are women who play a major role in agriculture. On a regional average, however, about 70% of women are employed in low paid, low skilled job.- art, the rates of unemployment are high in the territories. (Frett-Georges, 1986 p.9)

Table 6:13 below presents figures from the 1991 census as they relate to single headed households in the BVI. Table 6:14 illustrates the monthly income in those homes by gender.

TABLE 6:13
SINGLE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS 1991

Source: National Report ICPD

About 20% (260) of the male heads and 24% (315) of the female heads were employed in managerial and professional positions, while 15% (193) males and 21% (280) females were employed in subordinate positions. As Table 6:14 shows, females earned less even though they had higher education

TABLE 6:14
SINGLE HEAD INCOME PER MONTH BY GENDER

Source: Women's Desk 1994

Although Table 6:13 might appear to refute Burkes' finding in the Caribbean that more than one third of all households are headed by women, one must keep in mind the unique population profile in the BVI which is influenced by 49.9% of foreign born inhabitants. These women are "actively discouraged from giving birth to children in the territory by being asked to leave the islands "(Frett-Georges, 1986). The migration of dependents of imported workers provides an interesting context for the interpretation of any data regarding families in the BVI. In fact the researcher is faced with a dilemma because of difficulties in recording this information faced by persons collecting census information. The presenters of the national report for the ICPD found that the last census did not correctly assess the proportion of the population that is foreign born. They made their dilemma clear in the following statement:

Census information lead us to conclude that the conventional dependency ratio cannot adequately reflect the true picture in the BVI as persons on their immigration application indicate that they have some 8,256 dependents living outside the BVI. The traditional dependency ratio provides a misleading picture of the economy in terms of savings ratio, household per capita income, and spending etc. (National Report for ICPD, 1994 p.20)

Although Table 6:14 shows the monthly income of single head households by gender, the researchers for the ICPD affirm that such figures overrate the economic well-being of the BVI as foreign workers have to remit a significant part of their income to their home country to support the dependents left there.

Table 6:15 illustrates the number of people in the labour force according to their gender while Table 6:16 shows the unemployment rate by gender. From both tables one will observe that men are more likely to he employed than women.

 TABLE 6:15
WOMEN AND MEN IN LABOUR FORCE, % OF POPULATION

Source: National Report for ICPD 1994

TABLE 6:16
UNEMPLOYMENT RATE % OF POPULATION

Source: National Report for ICPD 1994

A closer examination of the labour force in Table 6:1 7 demonstrates that the service industries accounted for more than 80% per cent of employment in both census years cited.

TABLE 6:17
DISTRIBUTION OF LABOUR FORCE

Source: National Report for ICPD 1994

It is not surprising then that the Gross Domestic product shows that the greatest increase in economic activity during the years 1985 and 1989 are in areas related to tourism as presented in Table 6:1

 TABLE 6:18
British Virgin Islands
Gross Domestic Product by Academic Activity
at Factor Cost (US$ Million)

Source: BVI National report for ICPD, 1994

Table 6:19 shows the types of jobs, which were done by males and females in 1981.

 TABLE 6:19
EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND OCCUPATION BY GENDER IN 1981

Source: 1980-91 Population Census, BVI

Table 6:19 shows a clear distinction between the jobs done by women and men in 1981. While 68% of all administrative and management workers were men, only 31% were women. However, 78% of those who worked for those managers and administrators as clerical workers were women while only 22% were men. About 60% and 63% of all sales and service workers were also women, while only about 40% of, workers in those categories were men. Only 85 of all female workers 1845 could be found in agriculture and production related work while 1,843 of the 3,046 male workers were employed in those fields.

The employment picture presented for 1981 corresponds closely to that for the thirteen-year period preceding 1994, as obtained from the Social Security Board in the BVI. (Women's Desk, 1994). Those figures which represent 65% of all employees indicate that the "majority of women whose professions are listed are housekeepers/cleaners, maids, waitresses, dishwashers, cooks/kitchen assistants". Many women were also secretaries, clerical workers, sales clerks, teachers and nurses.

Table 6:20 below does an in-group analysis of occupations in 1981. 

 TABLE 6:20
PERCENTAGE EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND
OCCUPATION IN GENDER GROUP

Source: 1980-81 Population Census, BVI

This table corroborates the 13 year findings of the Social Security Board. The majority of women (77.5%) were service, sales and clerical workers (44.6%, 11.5%, 21.4% respectively), while professional and technical workers which would include teachers and nurses accounted for another 14.4%. On the contrary, 51.1% of all men were involved in production (which included construction) only 15.8% were in service work, and 10.8% in professional and technical work. As we saw from Table 6:5 only 43 of these men in professional/technical fields would have been teachers, compared to 146 women.

Reports on the current situation of women in the work force indicate that although women still remain in the minority in management, the situation is improving. Today women are more often found in the legal and accounting professions and are beginning to infiltrate the fields traditionally occupied by males. Almost half of all heads of departments, statutory boards and other agencies are women and two out of five permanent secretaries are currently women. Women in the BVI are doing better in the civil service than in the private sector.

Table 6:21 and 6:22 which follow, speak to employment in industry between and within gender groups.

TABLE 6:21
INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT BY GENDER 1981

Source: 1980-81 Population Census BVI National Report for ICPD 1994

Worthy of note here is the finding that in 1981 the areas of Commerce which include hotels, restaurants and wholesale and retail businesses and account for 28.25 and 1 1.20 of the ~GDP, are over represented by women who outnumber men by 67.7% to 42.3% (Table 6:18). However, we also note from Table 6:19 that 60% of all sales workers and 63% of all service workers are women. So although women outnumber the men in these areas, they are in the subordinate positions where they earn less money.

The same type of pattern is consistent throughout these tables for in areas like Finance, Real Estate, Government Services and Transportation and Communication where we find that the GDP is high, even if the majority of workers seem to be women we must interpret women's financial benefit by realizing that 68% of all administrators and 55% of all professional/technical persons who would be earning the highest salaries are men.

TABLE 6:22
PERCENTAGE INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT IN GENDER GROUP

Source: 1980-81 Population Census BVI

Table 6:22 does not provide additional information except to demonstrate that in 1981 over 60 per cent of all women compared to 33 per cent of all men were employed in areas that contributed very little to the GDP - that is, the areas of community and other services. This corroborates the finding that women were employed, by and large, in lower paying jobs. 

TABLE 6:23
PERSONS EMPLOYED BY OCCUPATION AND GENDER, 1991

A comparison of employment by occupation and gender between the period 1971 to 1991 shows that females have increased their share in all occupational groups in 1991, with the highest increase occuring in the occupational group Administrators and other managers, at the same time the proportion of males in all occupational groups have declined over the ten year period. Females continue to dominate the occupational groups clerical and related workers and sales and service workers accounting for 81.2% and 64.2 respectively of those groups. Traditionally. female workers show little preference for employment as Agricultural production workers and the trend has continued in 1991.

The status of women in the labour market has improved since 1980 in management professional and technical occupations.

TABLE 6:24
ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE POPULATION BY
OCCUPATIONAL GROUP AND SEX, 1991

Over the period 1980 to 1991 female workers employed as clerks, sales and service workers declined from 77.5 percent in 1980 to 68.7 percent in 1991. Of that broad group, female workers employed as Service and Sales workers declined from 56.1 percent in 1980 to 47.1 percent in 1991 while those employed as clerks moved up marginally from 21.4 percent in 1980 to 21.6 percent in 1991. Male workers employed ire the group, production and related workers accounted for 42.5 percent of the total male labour force, compared with 51.1 percent in 1980. The category of workers in the occupational group production and related workers include craft and related trade workers, plant and machine operation and construction workers. Both male and females recorded declined in the number engaged in agriculture.

Figure 1:

As Table 6:23 shows, in 1991, women continue to make less money than men. In fact, according to figures from the Development Planning Unit men from the western region (Table 6:24) which include the United States and Europe are making on average, mote than two times per month what BVI women are making more than three times what 'Immigrant women from the other Caribbean islands are making per month.

The low income figure for women point to women's continued subordinate status in society. In particular Caribbean women are primarily to be found in low income occupations where many may be making less than the minimum wage. As has been pointed out before, women's low wages make them vulnerable to poverty and marginalization and this has obvious adverse effects on them and their families.

Figure 2:

Figure 3

Table 6:25
Women by Graduation Status and Occupation, 1991

Over 41.0% of graduated female were employed in jobs requiring high skills. A mere 6.3% were doing elementary jobs. Of undergraduate females, only 6.0% were in high skill jobs while 29.7% did elementary work.

 Table 6:27
Women by Graduation Status and Industry, 1991 

Just over 3% of graduated women worked in Private Households and this compares to the 14.7% of the undergraduate. Just over 17% of graduated women worked in Hotels and Restaurants while 31.7% of undergraduate women were employed in this type of occupation.

Table 6:28
Women by Graduation Status and Type of Employment, 1991

The concentration of graduated and undergraduate women was very high in the private sector (about 53.0%) in both instances. However, while 22.1% of graduated women worked in the Public Service, only 6.3% of the undergraduate women in this sector. Over 35% of the undergraduate were formally unemployed and this compares to 18.2% of graduated women.

The mean monthly income for graduated women was USD 923.08 which is more than double the USD 425.53 earned by undergraduate women. The median monthly incomes were USD 750.00 and USD 310.00 for graduated and undergraduate women respectively.

The unemployment rate for 1991 among graduated women stood at 2.25% while for undergraduate women this measure was 4.77%. For the previous year (1990) these statistics were 2.07% and 3.98% for graduated and undergraduate women respectively.

Almost 56% of graduated women and their first pregnancy at or before age 19 years. For these same ages, over 68% of undergraduate women had their first pregnancy. Of graduated women, 79.6% had 2 of less live births while for undergraduate women this statistic was 55.3%. Therefore, only 21.4% of graduated women had 3 or more livebirths while 44.7% of graduated women had 3 or more livebirths.

WORK PERMITS

Because of the high percentage of immigrant workers in the BVI it is necessary to highlight some of the issues which affect them directly. Fifty per cent of the workforce hold work permits, which are issued to non BVIslanders either because locals are not qualified or do not want the jobs under question.

Domestic workers, who are at the low end of the employment spectrum and who are traditionally non-BVIslanders, are the targets of much reported exploitation with regards to the length of their working day, the failure of employers to pay into the social security scheme although deductions have been made from worker's pay, and sexual harassment.

BVI men reportedly also take sexual advantage of "down-island" women as they know that these women often will not report them for fear of losing their jobs. Cases of sexual harassment are treated as labour disputes because of the inadequacy of the BVI laws to provide for appropriate legal action. This is of course, unsatisfactory for the non-BVI women. (See also Sections 3 and 4 for further discussions regarding immigrant women).

PROGRAMMES AND ACTIVITIES

The Women's Desk in the BVI has been working behind the scenes with the labour Department to develop an association of low income workers. The Desk has been instrumental in reporting and publicizing labour problems and this has helped to create an information bank as people call in to report their individual situations.

The low income status of women in relation to the cost of living in the BV~I has been the precipitant of many social problems. It has meant that women have bad to work at two and sometimes three jobs in order to pay her bills and support her family. Many of these women are "semi-literate, many are not indigenous BVIslanders. For all these reasons and more, employers often take advantage of them "(Women's Desk, 1994 p. 4).

The Women's Desk posits the view that if an association of low income workers were to be formed it would allow workers to address issues like child care, sexual harassment and immigration problems as a group. "Government departments such as Health and labour would be able to design specific campaigns targeted at this segment of the population and be assured of an audience. Programmes and workshops aimed at improving professionalism, perfecting literary skills, imparting parenting knowledge and so on could more easily be done within the context of an existing association...... (Women's Desk, 1994:4).

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